New Research on the Origin of Cowries Used in Ancient China

by Ke Peng and Yanshi Zhu

Contents

  1. Introduction
  2. Natural Distribution of the Cowry
  3. Review of Past Research
  4. Collection and Analysis of Cowry Data
    1. Principle of data collection, adoption and analysis
    2. Collection and analysis of cowry data
      • Phase 1. Beginning of Cowry-use
        --Neolithic era
      • Phase 2. Development of Cowry-use
        --from the hypothetical Xia to early Shang Dynasties
      • Phase 3. Peak of Cowry-use
        --from middle Shang Dynasty to early Spring and Autumn Period
      • Phase 4. Waning of Cowry-use
        --from middle Spring-Autumn Period to Warring States
      • Phase 5. Disappearance of Cowry-use
        --from Qin Dynasty to Ran Dynasty
    3. Summary
  5. Demonstration of Relevant Data
    1. Collateral evidence of imitation cowries
    2. Collateral negative evidence of shell-mound sites
  6. Further Research in the Origin of Cowries Used in Ancient China
  7. Conclusion

Introduction

For long periods in ancient China, large numbers of cowry shells were used as money and ornamentation. However, the origin of Chinese cowries has been ignored until the present. This paper will attempt to correct a fundamental misunderstanding in the origin of Chinese cowries by collecting and analyzing all previous cowry data in the archaeological literature.

The cowries discussed here have various names throughout the literature such as: "marine shell", "dentalium shell", "zi'an shell", "monetary cowry", "treasure cowry", or "cowry". They mainly represent the two species, Monetaria annulus (Cypraea annulus) and Monetaria moneta (Cypraea moneta). Since their shapes and living areas, as well as their same functions, all basically correspond, they will all be referred to here as "cowries".

The phrase "ancient China," used here, refers to Chinese history and pre-history from the Neolithic era through the Han Dynasty. After the Han Dynasty, only a few cowries have been found. Although cowries were used again in Yunnan province from the Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD) to the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911 AD), there was no relationship between the uses of the two periods. The latter period of cowry use will not be discussed here.